Ong (1999) proposes the term "transnationality." The prefix "trans" refers to movement across borders as well as a changing nature. Transnationalism describes "the cultural specificities of global processes, tracing the multiplicity of the uses and conceptions of 'culture'" (p. 4). Ong (1999) notes that transnationalism does not represent random or unstructured movement of people and capital. Instead, the structures that guide societies extend to structure global movement.
1. Political economy is not separate from everyday practice.
Ong (1999) critiques theories that attempt to separate economy from culture. She argues that culture and economy inform one another, and so culture should be studied within the context of economies.
2. Transnational movements are structured by the same types of structures that guide other social movements and positions.
3. The dominance of market logics create "flexible citizenship," in which people's migration decisions are shaped by economics.
Ong (1999) characterizes flexible citizenship as fluid and opportunistic. She argues that people in a global market move based on market opportunities. The fluidity is balanced by structuring forces related to culture including family, gender, power, and class mobility.
4. This flexibility does not weaken state power, since governments also participate in the process.
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