Dingo (2012) emphasizes the interactivity of rhetorics across time and space. She outlines and demonstrates a rhetorical method that involves mapping networks of arguments. This process allows scholars to understand the way rhetorics travel transnationally.
1. Transcoding
Transcoding refers to the process of remaking meaning depending on the context of the argument. Meanings are scrambled so that a term can function in a new context. Dingo (2012) argues that transcoding is an intentional reforming of a term by the speaker which often facilitates political moves.
2. Ideological trafficking
Ideological trafficking is the influence of history on a word. Historical meanings are packed into terms so that their ideological baggage "bubbles up." Dingo (2012) specifies that ideological trafficking disregards intention or awareness of speaker and audience.
3. Interarticulation
Similar to transcoding, interarticulation involves terms' ability to hold multiple meanings simultaneously. Unlike transcoding, interarticulation does not represent intentional reworking of a term. Instead, interarticulation is a result of a term's existence in various contexts.
Showing posts with label Feminist Theory. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Feminist Theory. Show all posts
Friday, August 9, 2013
Mohanty (2003), "Under Western Eyes Revisited"
Mohanty (2003) argues that "antiglobalization" should be a key issue for feminism. She centralizes the role of pedagogy in facilitating globalization, and explains three models at the core of this issue.
1. Feminist-as-Tourist
In this model, Western feminists briefly inquire about non-Western cultures. This perspective frames two-thirds world women and women of the global South as victims, while White Western feminists are framed as liberated.
2. Feminist-as-Explorer
Western feminists explore non-Western cultures more thoroughly in this model. However, these analyses exclude the United States from the analysis. "International" is used to emphasize distance from home. Local and global both reference non-Western culture.
3. Feminist Solidarity or Comparative Feminist Studies Model
Mohanty (2003) advocates this approach, noting that it emphasizes relationships and feminist solidarity. It focuses on links between women, common interests, and co-responsibility.
1. Feminist-as-Tourist
In this model, Western feminists briefly inquire about non-Western cultures. This perspective frames two-thirds world women and women of the global South as victims, while White Western feminists are framed as liberated.
2. Feminist-as-Explorer
Western feminists explore non-Western cultures more thoroughly in this model. However, these analyses exclude the United States from the analysis. "International" is used to emphasize distance from home. Local and global both reference non-Western culture.
3. Feminist Solidarity or Comparative Feminist Studies Model
Mohanty (2003) advocates this approach, noting that it emphasizes relationships and feminist solidarity. It focuses on links between women, common interests, and co-responsibility.
Shohat (2001), "Area Studies, Transnationalism, and the Feminist Production of Knowledge"
1. Shohat (2001) argues that forms of domination should be examined in larger historical and political contexts. Therefore, area studies (like "Middle Eastern Studies") are problematic, because they isolate and homogenize groups.
2. Western feminists tend to frame "third world" women stereotypically and without agency. These discussions often take place outside of a discussion of "feminism," which means that "third world" women are not imagined to be part of feminist movements.
3. Sponge/additive approach
Western feminist concepts are extended onto other parts of the world (additive). Their lives are homogenized and absorbed into a master feminist narrative (sponge).
2. Western feminists tend to frame "third world" women stereotypically and without agency. These discussions often take place outside of a discussion of "feminism," which means that "third world" women are not imagined to be part of feminist movements.
3. Sponge/additive approach
Western feminist concepts are extended onto other parts of the world (additive). Their lives are homogenized and absorbed into a master feminist narrative (sponge).
Ong (1999), Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality
Ong (1999) proposes the term "transnationality." The prefix "trans" refers to movement across borders as well as a changing nature. Transnationalism describes "the cultural specificities of global processes, tracing the multiplicity of the uses and conceptions of 'culture'" (p. 4). Ong (1999) notes that transnationalism does not represent random or unstructured movement of people and capital. Instead, the structures that guide societies extend to structure global movement.
1. Political economy is not separate from everyday practice.
Ong (1999) critiques theories that attempt to separate economy from culture. She argues that culture and economy inform one another, and so culture should be studied within the context of economies.
2. Transnational movements are structured by the same types of structures that guide other social movements and positions.
3. The dominance of market logics create "flexible citizenship," in which people's migration decisions are shaped by economics.
Ong (1999) characterizes flexible citizenship as fluid and opportunistic. She argues that people in a global market move based on market opportunities. The fluidity is balanced by structuring forces related to culture including family, gender, power, and class mobility.
4. This flexibility does not weaken state power, since governments also participate in the process.
1. Political economy is not separate from everyday practice.
Ong (1999) critiques theories that attempt to separate economy from culture. She argues that culture and economy inform one another, and so culture should be studied within the context of economies.
2. Transnational movements are structured by the same types of structures that guide other social movements and positions.
3. The dominance of market logics create "flexible citizenship," in which people's migration decisions are shaped by economics.
Ong (1999) characterizes flexible citizenship as fluid and opportunistic. She argues that people in a global market move based on market opportunities. The fluidity is balanced by structuring forces related to culture including family, gender, power, and class mobility.
4. This flexibility does not weaken state power, since governments also participate in the process.
Smith (1999), "Research Through Imperial Eyes"
1. Global poverty, inequality, sickness, and poor educational access must be understood in historical context. Western epistemology has been complicit in this historical process.
Smith (1999) argues that European imperialism and colonialism have been a primary factor in keeping poor countries poor, sick, and hungry. One tool of this process is the spread of ideologies about "developing" nations and the "Third World." Research plays an important part in this process by defining what counts as knowledge and how knowledge should be gathered and understood.
2. Marginalized groups can resist against imperialism by offering "counter stories."
Marginalized people and nations can push back against this form of imperialism by offering alternate histories. Smith (1999) argues that reasserting cultural history allows marginalized cultures to take up agency of defining themselves. Cultures that have been defined by Western research domination can resist by defining themselves.
Smith (1999) argues that European imperialism and colonialism have been a primary factor in keeping poor countries poor, sick, and hungry. One tool of this process is the spread of ideologies about "developing" nations and the "Third World." Research plays an important part in this process by defining what counts as knowledge and how knowledge should be gathered and understood.
2. Marginalized groups can resist against imperialism by offering "counter stories."
Marginalized people and nations can push back against this form of imperialism by offering alternate histories. Smith (1999) argues that reasserting cultural history allows marginalized cultures to take up agency of defining themselves. Cultures that have been defined by Western research domination can resist by defining themselves.
Thursday, August 8, 2013
Narayan (1997), "'Death by Culture'"
Narayan (1997) compares accounts of Indian dowry murders with instances of domestic violence in America. She argues that differences in culture are highlighted in accounts of Indian women deaths, but not in re-tellings of American women's death. Narayan (1997) argues that violence against women is not cultural specific, which points to the problems of describing only Indian women's deaths as the effect of culture.
2. By discussing culture in a way that reaffirms stereotypes and power imbalances, scholars Other and essentialize groups of women.
3. Narayan (1997) urges feminist scholars to apply local context to descriptions. She believes this will help balance re-tellings of events that would otherwise be used to distance women from different cultures.
Narayan (1997) explains that contextual factors shift and change when they cross borders. One way to prevent this kind of essentializing slippage is to focus on the context. Narayan (1997) urges scholars to consider a local context.
Kaplan and Grewal (2002), "Transnational Practices and Interdisciplinary Feminist Scholarship"
1. Transnational should replace International.
Kaplan and Grewal (2002) argue that "transnational" should replace "international" as a way of cutting ties with historical problems of nationalist ideologies. "International" implies that nations are discrete entities. Transnationalism traces circuits of politics, economics, and cultures that are produced by policies of global inequality.
2. Transnational links nations together, thereby destabilizing binaries.
"Transnational practices" involve alliances, subversions, and complicities that allow us to examine global power asymmetries. Linkage theory demonstrates connections between nations and governments. It also destabilizes forms of hegemony dependent upon binaries and center-periphery conceptions of multi-culturalism.
3. Women's studies should reconfigure itself against nationalist binaries. This move has four dimensions:
A. Critiquing boundaries -- Identities are often formed based on boundaries. We therefore need to examine the hegemonic production of boundaries.
B. Complicity and Conflict -- Alliances are important, but we should be careful not to miss conflicting readings of texts that aim to unite through commonality.
C. Critiquing "common sense" -- Ideologies are built in politics of time and space. We need to recontextualize ideological notions with regard to nationalist structures.
D. Deconstructing "high" and "low" culture -- Gender is built through lots of forms. New media is important now. We need to look across divides to find gendered representations.
Kaplan and Grewal (2002) argue that "transnational" should replace "international" as a way of cutting ties with historical problems of nationalist ideologies. "International" implies that nations are discrete entities. Transnationalism traces circuits of politics, economics, and cultures that are produced by policies of global inequality.
2. Transnational links nations together, thereby destabilizing binaries.
"Transnational practices" involve alliances, subversions, and complicities that allow us to examine global power asymmetries. Linkage theory demonstrates connections between nations and governments. It also destabilizes forms of hegemony dependent upon binaries and center-periphery conceptions of multi-culturalism.
3. Women's studies should reconfigure itself against nationalist binaries. This move has four dimensions:
A. Critiquing boundaries -- Identities are often formed based on boundaries. We therefore need to examine the hegemonic production of boundaries.
B. Complicity and Conflict -- Alliances are important, but we should be careful not to miss conflicting readings of texts that aim to unite through commonality.
C. Critiquing "common sense" -- Ideologies are built in politics of time and space. We need to recontextualize ideological notions with regard to nationalist structures.
D. Deconstructing "high" and "low" culture -- Gender is built through lots of forms. New media is important now. We need to look across divides to find gendered representations.
Alcoff (1991), "The Problem of Speaking for Others"
1. Speaking carries constraints, and it is not always afforded to every individual every time.
Alcoff (1991) argues that universalized positions are dangerous and unhelpful in feminist criticism. She criticizes the idea that one should *never* speak for others or that speaking for others is always problematic. This is because speaking is not simply a matter of choice, since choice is constrained and not everyone has access to the rituals of speaking.
2. Rather than speaking for others, we should speak to others.
When a privileged person speaks for an oppressed person, Alcoff (1991) argues, the structure is mired in privilege. Therefore, it is the structure that needs to be altered. Alcoff (1991) therefore urges feminist scholars to find ways to create conditions for dialogue.
Alcoff (1991) argues that universalized positions are dangerous and unhelpful in feminist criticism. She criticizes the idea that one should *never* speak for others or that speaking for others is always problematic. This is because speaking is not simply a matter of choice, since choice is constrained and not everyone has access to the rituals of speaking.
2. Rather than speaking for others, we should speak to others.
When a privileged person speaks for an oppressed person, Alcoff (1991) argues, the structure is mired in privilege. Therefore, it is the structure that needs to be altered. Alcoff (1991) therefore urges feminist scholars to find ways to create conditions for dialogue.
Mohanty (1984), "Under Western Eyes"
1. Western feminists often frame women's issues in contexts of the "third world" and "developing countries." This creates a monolithic picture of women in the two-thirds world.
Mohanty (1984) is concerned here with generalizing about issues faced by women around the globe. She argues that Western feminists tend to look at women's experiences in the two-third world outside of the context of economic issues. Instead, feminism should look at the ways that women are constituted within those circumstances.
2. Methods that promote this type of essentialism have a colonizing influence. Western feminists should not ignore the complexities of intersection oppressions like class and ethnicity.
Mohanty (1984) urges feminist scholars to consider the complex interaction of many factors in contributing to women's oppression in the two-thirds world and elsewhere. She argues that scholars should include analyses of:
A. concrete historical and political practice,
B. specific local contexts, and
C. contradictions inherent in women's intersectional identities.
Mohanty (1984) is concerned here with generalizing about issues faced by women around the globe. She argues that Western feminists tend to look at women's experiences in the two-third world outside of the context of economic issues. Instead, feminism should look at the ways that women are constituted within those circumstances.
2. Methods that promote this type of essentialism have a colonizing influence. Western feminists should not ignore the complexities of intersection oppressions like class and ethnicity.
Mohanty (1984) urges feminist scholars to consider the complex interaction of many factors in contributing to women's oppression in the two-thirds world and elsewhere. She argues that scholars should include analyses of:
A. concrete historical and political practice,
B. specific local contexts, and
C. contradictions inherent in women's intersectional identities.
Waring (2003), "Counting for Something!"
Waring (2003) critiques the UNSNA's system of accounting for unpaid labor in the home and community. The majority of this labor is performed by women. When household labor is not accounted for in official numbers, then the women performing that labor also lose access to other economic programs. Waring (2003) identifies two ongoing issues in economic accounting systems:
1. Systems do not ask people to set their own indicators of well-being.
The most dominant measurement system uses economic growth as an indicator for people's well-being. Waring (2003) argues that economists should speak with people and ask them to rate their own well-being.
2. Systems should present data in non-monetary terms.
Waring (2003) argues that putting a monetary value to all work falsely aligns work in the home with market exchange. If unpaid labor were accounted by hours or workload instead, Waring (2003) points out, issues of gender inequality in terms of labor load could be better addressed through things like childcare services.
1. Systems do not ask people to set their own indicators of well-being.
The most dominant measurement system uses economic growth as an indicator for people's well-being. Waring (2003) argues that economists should speak with people and ask them to rate their own well-being.
2. Systems should present data in non-monetary terms.
Waring (2003) argues that putting a monetary value to all work falsely aligns work in the home with market exchange. If unpaid labor were accounted by hours or workload instead, Waring (2003) points out, issues of gender inequality in terms of labor load could be better addressed through things like childcare services.
Strassmann (1993), "The Rhetoric of Disciplinary Authority in Economics"
1. Economics is a discipline marked as explanatory rather than a domain to be explained.
Strassmann (1993) critiques economics for its disciplinary structure. Most disciplines define themselves by the domain they wish to examine, economics is instead defined by its explanation of things work.
2. Economics is based on central stories about the value of market exchange.
Economics privileges the market exchange. Since women have historically be excluded from this exchange, economics has therefore proceeded without fully accounting for women's existence in economies. To remedy this fact, stories have emerged that justify and dismiss women's oppressed position in capitalist economies.
3. Since market exchange is so central to economics as a theory and discipline, changes in economic structure are very difficult.
Economics frames itself as an approach that is built around certain core assumptions. Some problems in economics are related to things like self-interested individualism, which are very close to the core of economics.
Strassmann (1993) critiques economics for its disciplinary structure. Most disciplines define themselves by the domain they wish to examine, economics is instead defined by its explanation of things work.
2. Economics is based on central stories about the value of market exchange.
Economics privileges the market exchange. Since women have historically be excluded from this exchange, economics has therefore proceeded without fully accounting for women's existence in economies. To remedy this fact, stories have emerged that justify and dismiss women's oppressed position in capitalist economies.
3. Since market exchange is so central to economics as a theory and discipline, changes in economic structure are very difficult.
Economics frames itself as an approach that is built around certain core assumptions. Some problems in economics are related to things like self-interested individualism, which are very close to the core of economics.
Mies (1993), "The Subsistence Perspective"
Mies (1993) critiques the neo-liberal capitalist focus on commodity and suggests replacing this perspective with what she calls "the subsistence perspective." She argues that economies should be based on a bottom-up approach.
1. Housework is not understood as labor.
Mies (1993) interrogates capitalism's limited understanding of labor. In particular, she is concerned with housework and other forms of unpaid labor. Mies (1993) argues that capitalism cannot afford to pay for household labors, because these non-commodified forms would collapse a system based on commodity. Housework does not fit into the accumulation model of capitalism.
2. Economic equality can only occur when commodity models are discarded.
Mies (1993) argues that we should reverse the model that uses commodities to structure economics from the top down. Instead, she proposes a subsistence perspective that work from the bottom up with human need as its centerpiece. In the subsistence perspective, the goal of all paid labor must be to support life directly.
1. Housework is not understood as labor.
Mies (1993) interrogates capitalism's limited understanding of labor. In particular, she is concerned with housework and other forms of unpaid labor. Mies (1993) argues that capitalism cannot afford to pay for household labors, because these non-commodified forms would collapse a system based on commodity. Housework does not fit into the accumulation model of capitalism.
2. Economic equality can only occur when commodity models are discarded.
Mies (1993) argues that we should reverse the model that uses commodities to structure economics from the top down. Instead, she proposes a subsistence perspective that work from the bottom up with human need as its centerpiece. In the subsistence perspective, the goal of all paid labor must be to support life directly.
Hartsock. (1983), "The Feminist Standpoint"
1. Knowledge is socially situated.
Hartsock (1983) rejects the belief that knowledge is fixed. She argues that all attempts at knowledge are based on one's social position. Issues of identity including gender, race, sexuality, and class impact and delineate what we know, how we know it, and whether or not we are able to know it at all.
2. Marginalized groups have special access to certain questions and truths than non-marginalized groups. This is a result of their unique social position.
Socially marginalized positions can be epistemically superior. This allows those in oppressed positions to see beyond knowledges constructed by the oppressor.
3. Research about power relations should begin with the lives of the marginalized.
This epistemic superiority can lead research in directions that would otherwise be overlooked. This is particularly true in issues of public policy, since those in oppressed positions are more likely to see problems in need of solutions.
Hartsock (1983) rejects the belief that knowledge is fixed. She argues that all attempts at knowledge are based on one's social position. Issues of identity including gender, race, sexuality, and class impact and delineate what we know, how we know it, and whether or not we are able to know it at all.
2. Marginalized groups have special access to certain questions and truths than non-marginalized groups. This is a result of their unique social position.
Socially marginalized positions can be epistemically superior. This allows those in oppressed positions to see beyond knowledges constructed by the oppressor.
3. Research about power relations should begin with the lives of the marginalized.
This epistemic superiority can lead research in directions that would otherwise be overlooked. This is particularly true in issues of public policy, since those in oppressed positions are more likely to see problems in need of solutions.
Hartmann (1979), "The Unhappy Marriage of Marxism and Feminism"
Hartmann (1979) argues Marxism has subsumed feminism in previous attempts at Marxist feminist theory. Marxism offers a background of economic theory, but this is not sufficient for theorizing women's position in both patriarchy and capitalism.
1. Economics is only one aspect of patriarchal domination.
Hartmann (1979) notes that men have dominated women economically, and that economics have functioned to subjugate women. However, she notes that Marxist theory simply argues that women are kept in the labor force. Feminist theory must also examine the ways other forms of women's labor are exploited by men. She specifically notes work in the home as one of these axes.
2. Patriarchy can be defined through capitalism, but is not synonymous with capitalism.
Hartmann (1979) defines patriarchy as social relations between men that work to oppress women. These relations have a material base. Though these relations are hierarchical, they work to empower men to dominate women as individuals and in groups.
Butler (1990), Gender Trouble
1. Like gender, sex is also a socially constructed category.
Butler (1990) argues that the concept of discrete sex categories grew out of social and political dynamics. Like gender categories, sex categories are constructed and therefore deconstructable.
2. Subjects' sex and gender identities are not a result of inner stable truths. Instead, they are performances that repeat themselves with no origin.
Gender is a performance of a performance with no original performance. Butler (1990) argues that we are constantly reaffirming our gender identity through outward demonstrations of what gender has come to mean. Society has come to understand this performance as a reflection of a true inner self, but it is actually just a repetition of what has become socially expected and acceptable.
3. The soul is the prison of the body.
Butler (1990) argues that gender constantly works on the body. Discourses of gender operate on the body to form outward expressions of gender performance and sexual identity.
Butler (1990) argues that the concept of discrete sex categories grew out of social and political dynamics. Like gender categories, sex categories are constructed and therefore deconstructable.
2. Subjects' sex and gender identities are not a result of inner stable truths. Instead, they are performances that repeat themselves with no origin.
Gender is a performance of a performance with no original performance. Butler (1990) argues that we are constantly reaffirming our gender identity through outward demonstrations of what gender has come to mean. Society has come to understand this performance as a reflection of a true inner self, but it is actually just a repetition of what has become socially expected and acceptable.
3. The soul is the prison of the body.
Butler (1990) argues that gender constantly works on the body. Discourses of gender operate on the body to form outward expressions of gender performance and sexual identity.
Bartky (1988), "Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power"
Bartky (1988) argues that women internalize the patriarchy. We are taught to see ourselves through patriarchal eyes, and therefore we discipline ourselves into performing femininity.
1. Social structures control our bodies through our minds.
Foucault argued that systems of power work to create docile bodies. This control comes through constant surveillance that eventually teaches people to police their own bodies in alignment with the function of the state. Bartky (1988) applies this concept to contemporary femininity, arguing that women are taught to internalize the patriarchy. We learn to watch our bodies and discipline ourselves into being docile.
2. Femininity requires constant self-policing.
Bartky (1988) argues that the performance of femininity requires women to discipline our bodies in terms of size, space, movement, adornment, and other aspects of feminine performance. These restrictions are not only required of all women, they are also unattainable. This keeps women constantly focused on performances of femininity.
3. Self-policing is obedience to the patriarchy.
Constant self-surveillance continually reaffirms that women's bodies serve primarily to please and excite men.
1. Social structures control our bodies through our minds.
Foucault argued that systems of power work to create docile bodies. This control comes through constant surveillance that eventually teaches people to police their own bodies in alignment with the function of the state. Bartky (1988) applies this concept to contemporary femininity, arguing that women are taught to internalize the patriarchy. We learn to watch our bodies and discipline ourselves into being docile.
2. Femininity requires constant self-policing.
Bartky (1988) argues that the performance of femininity requires women to discipline our bodies in terms of size, space, movement, adornment, and other aspects of feminine performance. These restrictions are not only required of all women, they are also unattainable. This keeps women constantly focused on performances of femininity.
3. Self-policing is obedience to the patriarchy.
Constant self-surveillance continually reaffirms that women's bodies serve primarily to please and excite men.
Scott (1986), "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis"
Scott (1986) argues that sex roles are socially constructed, and so feminist scholars must move away from the idea that biology is a determining factor in gender.
1. Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes.
Scott argues (1986) that gender is constructed through four parts that all work together:
A. cultural symbols
B. normative concepts that help us interpret symbols
C. politics and social structures organize us according to symbols
D. we have our own subjective identities, in part defined by those structures
2. Gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power.
Scott (1986) notes that this construction of gender has been used in service of sexuality, which in turn cements men's power over women.
1. Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes.
Scott argues (1986) that gender is constructed through four parts that all work together:
A. cultural symbols
B. normative concepts that help us interpret symbols
C. politics and social structures organize us according to symbols
D. we have our own subjective identities, in part defined by those structures
2. Gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power.
Scott (1986) notes that this construction of gender has been used in service of sexuality, which in turn cements men's power over women.
Fausto-Sterling (1985), Myths of Gender
1. Biology may impact behavior, but behavior also impacts physiology. Therefore, it is impossible for science to determine which attributes are behavior and which are physiological.
Fausto-Sterling (1985) points out that scientists have tried to link behavioral differences to biological sex. She notes that these studies are often methodologically flawed. Since biological attributes and behavioral/social attributes work in a cycle with one another, it is impossible to draw a line between biology and behavior. This would fail even theoretically, but is particularly problematic for post-positivist scientific method.
2. Gendered differences in learning styles are not a result of biology. Instead, they are evidence of discrimination in educational systems.
A wider range of studies involving spatial and verbal intelligences demonstrates that differences within the sex categories are similar to differences between. Furthermore, in more egalitarian societies, no difference between biological sexes appear.
3. DNA coding cannot be linked directly with eventual trait development.
Genes must be understood in a larger context, since human development impacts the resulting gene performance.
4. Hormones can be both a cause and an effect of behavior and environmental conditions.
Fausto-Sterling (1985) points out that scientists have tried to link behavioral differences to biological sex. She notes that these studies are often methodologically flawed. Since biological attributes and behavioral/social attributes work in a cycle with one another, it is impossible to draw a line between biology and behavior. This would fail even theoretically, but is particularly problematic for post-positivist scientific method.
2. Gendered differences in learning styles are not a result of biology. Instead, they are evidence of discrimination in educational systems.
A wider range of studies involving spatial and verbal intelligences demonstrates that differences within the sex categories are similar to differences between. Furthermore, in more egalitarian societies, no difference between biological sexes appear.
3. DNA coding cannot be linked directly with eventual trait development.
Genes must be understood in a larger context, since human development impacts the resulting gene performance.
4. Hormones can be both a cause and an effect of behavior and environmental conditions.
Rich (1980), "Compulsory Heterosexuality and the Lesbian Existence"
1. Lesbian existence refers to the presence of lesbians throughout history and contemporary society.
2. The lesbian continuum refers to the way that women experience other women throughout our lives. It is not necessarily a reference to genital sexual experiences.
Rich (1980) argues that heterosexuality is a violent political institution that secures women's subordination to men. Women should turn to other women in order to develop coalitions outside of the patriarchal structure of heterosexuality. This includes reshaping ideas of economics, family structure, and sexual and psychological fulfillment.
3. Men control and suppress women by denying us our sexuality.
Rich (1980) notes that men have used power to suppress women's sexuality throughout history, and she lists a number of ways this occurs. Men deny women sexuality and force their sexuality on women. Men exploit women's production labor by taking control over reproductive rights. Men deny lesbians access to their children. Men keep economic control over women.
2. The lesbian continuum refers to the way that women experience other women throughout our lives. It is not necessarily a reference to genital sexual experiences.
Rich (1980) argues that heterosexuality is a violent political institution that secures women's subordination to men. Women should turn to other women in order to develop coalitions outside of the patriarchal structure of heterosexuality. This includes reshaping ideas of economics, family structure, and sexual and psychological fulfillment.
3. Men control and suppress women by denying us our sexuality.
Rich (1980) notes that men have used power to suppress women's sexuality throughout history, and she lists a number of ways this occurs. Men deny women sexuality and force their sexuality on women. Men exploit women's production labor by taking control over reproductive rights. Men deny lesbians access to their children. Men keep economic control over women.
Rubin (1975), "The Traffic in Women"
1. Reproduction, and not necessarily capitalism, is the cause of women's oppression.
Rubin (1975) notes that women are oppressed by capitalism, but also in other societies that are not organized around capitalism. This is because societies have to account for both material needs and reproductive needs.
2. Reproduction is translated into oppression through the kinship system.
Marriage is a major element in gift exchange between clans. Marriage facilitates alliances between men by using women as the object of exchange. This is the basis for the kinship system. Women's oppression is the result of this social structure.
3. The sex/gender system cements the kinship economy in place.
The necessity of marriage in this system also necessitates sexuality. Since the society is based on marriage as gift exchange and reproduction system, males must be turned into men and females must be turned into women. Differences and complementarianism between the genders are emphasized, while sameness is dismissed. This sex/gender system maintains heteronormativity necessary for the political economy of marriage.
Rubin (1975) notes that women are oppressed by capitalism, but also in other societies that are not organized around capitalism. This is because societies have to account for both material needs and reproductive needs.
2. Reproduction is translated into oppression through the kinship system.
Marriage is a major element in gift exchange between clans. Marriage facilitates alliances between men by using women as the object of exchange. This is the basis for the kinship system. Women's oppression is the result of this social structure.
3. The sex/gender system cements the kinship economy in place.
The necessity of marriage in this system also necessitates sexuality. Since the society is based on marriage as gift exchange and reproduction system, males must be turned into men and females must be turned into women. Differences and complementarianism between the genders are emphasized, while sameness is dismissed. This sex/gender system maintains heteronormativity necessary for the political economy of marriage.
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