Scheufele (1999), "Framing as a Theory of Media Effects"

Media frames as dependent variables
Scheufele (1999) notes that many studies claim the routines of journalists shape the way news is framed. Pressures on journalists and media organizations have also been blamed for limiting media frames.

Media frames as independent variables
Scheufele (1999) argues that framing works best as a media effects theory when it is applied as the independent variable. Studies that apply framing as an independent variable focus on the persuasive consequences of media framing and the way that limited frames can impact public opinion. Following Entman, Scheufele (1999) identifies five areas in which framing can impact public opinion of issues. These include judgment of importance, judgments about agency, identification with victims, choice of labels, and generalization. Media framing can also be used as an independent variable that effects individual media consumers' framing of incidents.

Scheufele (1999) proposes a model that maps framing as a process. The process involves four steps.

1. Frame building includes the development of the frame by journalists and new organizations.
2. Frame setting centralizes the audience reception and processing of the media frame.
3. Individual Effects of Framing involves the audience use of frames in their everyday interactions and understandings of society.
4. "Journalists as Audiences" focuses on journalists development of media frames based on their experiences in the culture.