Howell (2012) uses Burke's concept of "scapegoating" to examine the recent "birther" movement. Paranoid style is usually limited in longevity. Howell (2012) argues that the Birther's paranoid style persisted because it employed steps of the scapegoating process.
Scapegoating is about purging impurity from the self. It is framed in terms of both a sacrifice and a killing, though one of these frames will be more prominent. The scapegoating process has four steps.
1. Hierarchy
Humans crave order. The process of ordering creates hierarchies. Those at the bottom of the hierarchies are labelled as inferior or Other.
2. Alienation
The second stage of scapegoating is profound disorder. People feel confused about the hierarchy, and therefore turn away from it altogether. This creates instability, which distances people from the order that had formerly organized their worldview.
3. Guilt
Alienated people turn inward. They feel guilt that the world around them is disordered.
4. Victimage
People transfer guilt onto a scapegoat. They must identify with this scapegoat and invest the scapegoat
Monday, August 12, 2013
Desilet and Appel (2011), "Choosing a Rhetoric of the Enemy"
1. The comic frame requires the double vision of dramatic irony.
Desilet and Appel (2011) point out that Burke's comic frame asks individuals to view an issue from both sides. He illustrates this point by comparing it to a Shakespearean comedy in which the audience perspective of the character's mistakes joins with the audience perspective of identifying with the characters. This "double vision" is the effect of looking from both inside and outside the situation.
2. This double vision is an effect of criticism.
To achieve Burke's "double vision" in the face of a perceived wrongdoing, Desilet and Appel (2011) argue that individuals must conduct a thorough critique of self and a thorough critique of the other. This should be combined with taking an attitude of the comic frame.
3. Through criticism, one can reach warrantable outrage while maintaining the preferable comic frame.
Desilet and Appel (2011) point out that Burke's comic frame asks individuals to view an issue from both sides. He illustrates this point by comparing it to a Shakespearean comedy in which the audience perspective of the character's mistakes joins with the audience perspective of identifying with the characters. This "double vision" is the effect of looking from both inside and outside the situation.
2. This double vision is an effect of criticism.
To achieve Burke's "double vision" in the face of a perceived wrongdoing, Desilet and Appel (2011) argue that individuals must conduct a thorough critique of self and a thorough critique of the other. This should be combined with taking an attitude of the comic frame.
3. Through criticism, one can reach warrantable outrage while maintaining the preferable comic frame.
Weiser (2009), "'As Usual I Fell On the Bias'"
Weiser (2009) examines the role of "falling on the bias" in a context of dramatistic analysis.
1. By "falling on the bias," Burke referred not to compromise, but to a way of finding the best elements in each side of an argument. Weiser (2009) points out that this new bias position may not be agreed upon by either side. The important aspect of the bias position is not to join together two sides but to work against attitudes of absolutism.
2. Dramatism allows critics to find the bias position by looking at relationships between elements. As Weiser (2009) points out, dramatism is not about naming an absolute meaning, but about understanding the way that elements of a situation work together. Weiser (2009) argues that this process can bring out a position that lies across seemingly conflicting positions.
3. In order to achieve the "bias-falling parliamentary dialectic," one must
a. recognize that two perspectives are at odds with one another and
b. talk about the competing perspectives in a way that universalizes them.
1. By "falling on the bias," Burke referred not to compromise, but to a way of finding the best elements in each side of an argument. Weiser (2009) points out that this new bias position may not be agreed upon by either side. The important aspect of the bias position is not to join together two sides but to work against attitudes of absolutism.
2. Dramatism allows critics to find the bias position by looking at relationships between elements. As Weiser (2009) points out, dramatism is not about naming an absolute meaning, but about understanding the way that elements of a situation work together. Weiser (2009) argues that this process can bring out a position that lies across seemingly conflicting positions.
3. In order to achieve the "bias-falling parliamentary dialectic," one must
a. recognize that two perspectives are at odds with one another and
b. talk about the competing perspectives in a way that universalizes them.
Ott and Aoki (2002), "The Politics of Negotiating Public Tragedy"
Ott and Aoki (2002) analyze several media outlets' coverage of the Matthew Shepard murder. They apply Burke's Grammar of Motives to framing analysis in order to examine the larger issue of how media framing influences public attitudes.
1. A scapegoat must be consubstantiated with the community
As Ott and Aoki (2002) point out, scapegoating alienates and sacrifices one member of a community in order to purify a shared problem. This process of scapegoating requires a sacrifice of someone who shares similar characteristics with others in society. It requires consubstantiation between the scapegoat and the community prior to the sacrifice.
2. Scapegoats are a feature of the tragic frame.
Media's use of the tragic frame drives the scapegoating process by contributing to the alienation, sacrifice, and reunification steps.
3. The tragic frame does not allow communities to learn from a shared mistake.
Ott and Aoki (2002) argue that media use of the tragic frame limits society's ability to learn and grow as a result of tragedy. They advocate media use of comic frames, which allow correction of a behavior without alienating and sacrificing an individual's action from the group's action.
1. A scapegoat must be consubstantiated with the community
As Ott and Aoki (2002) point out, scapegoating alienates and sacrifices one member of a community in order to purify a shared problem. This process of scapegoating requires a sacrifice of someone who shares similar characteristics with others in society. It requires consubstantiation between the scapegoat and the community prior to the sacrifice.
2. Scapegoats are a feature of the tragic frame.
Media's use of the tragic frame drives the scapegoating process by contributing to the alienation, sacrifice, and reunification steps.
3. The tragic frame does not allow communities to learn from a shared mistake.
Ott and Aoki (2002) argue that media use of the tragic frame limits society's ability to learn and grow as a result of tragedy. They advocate media use of comic frames, which allow correction of a behavior without alienating and sacrificing an individual's action from the group's action.
Boor Tonn, Endress, and Diamond (1993), "Hunting and Heritage on Trial"
1. Act-Scene ratio is often used to absolve guilt. Scene can also be used to identify in-group/out-group.
Boor Tonn, Endress, and Diamond (1993) note that scene-agent ratio is often used when rhetors hope to absolve themselves of guilt. By shifting the focus of the drama to scene, the agent implies that they were moved by the container rather than by agency that is uniquely their own. An emphasis on scene can also engulf an individual into a community or exclude that individual from their role in a group.
2. Humans are inherently tribal. Hierarchies in the tribe contribute to reframing scene.
The authors argue that establishing solid hierarchies redefines a scene. The dominating persona in the drama dictates the scene, by seizing control of the territory. The dominated person is considered an interloper. The scene is defined by the dominater's right to be there, which recasts the act as justified.
Boor Tonn, Endress, and Diamond (1993) note that scene-agent ratio is often used when rhetors hope to absolve themselves of guilt. By shifting the focus of the drama to scene, the agent implies that they were moved by the container rather than by agency that is uniquely their own. An emphasis on scene can also engulf an individual into a community or exclude that individual from their role in a group.
2. Humans are inherently tribal. Hierarchies in the tribe contribute to reframing scene.
The authors argue that establishing solid hierarchies redefines a scene. The dominating persona in the drama dictates the scene, by seizing control of the territory. The dominated person is considered an interloper. The scene is defined by the dominater's right to be there, which recasts the act as justified.
Burke (1966), "Terministic Screens"
1. Two approaches to studying language -- scientistic and dramatistic. These are not mutually exclusive.
A. Scientistic focuses on language's power to name and define. Something "is" or "is not," and what follows that proposition defines the thing. Scientistic approaches to language are concerned with symbolic logic.
For Burke, naming is "magic." He also calls naming "dancing attitudes."
B. Dramatistic focuses on language's urgings. Something "shall" or "shall not," and what follows is a direction to the thing. Dramatistic approaches to language target suasive potentials, and are usually associated with stories, advertisements, myths, and philosophies.
2. Language reflects, selects, and deflects reality.
The dramatistic approach is concerned with how language influences us. Burke (1966) argues that the suasive power of language is through terminology. Terministic screens are the sets of terminologies that frame an object's reality. Our choice of terms filters some meanings out and emphasizes others.
3. Terministic screens determine what we can understand, question, and think about reality.
Burke (1966) argues that our observations about our world come from the choice of terms we use. These terms define reality, which allows them to shape the production of future terminology choices.
A. Scientistic focuses on language's power to name and define. Something "is" or "is not," and what follows that proposition defines the thing. Scientistic approaches to language are concerned with symbolic logic.
For Burke, naming is "magic." He also calls naming "dancing attitudes."
B. Dramatistic focuses on language's urgings. Something "shall" or "shall not," and what follows is a direction to the thing. Dramatistic approaches to language target suasive potentials, and are usually associated with stories, advertisements, myths, and philosophies.
2. Language reflects, selects, and deflects reality.
The dramatistic approach is concerned with how language influences us. Burke (1966) argues that the suasive power of language is through terminology. Terministic screens are the sets of terminologies that frame an object's reality. Our choice of terms filters some meanings out and emphasizes others.
3. Terministic screens determine what we can understand, question, and think about reality.
Burke (1966) argues that our observations about our world come from the choice of terms we use. These terms define reality, which allows them to shape the production of future terminology choices.
Burke (1945), A Grammar of Motives
Burke (1945) argues that rhetoric poetry. Therefore, we need to look at social life as a play. The biological exists as a backdrop for the action, but it is unable to account for human interaction. Burke (1945) therefore suggests a method (not a "methodology," since Burke see this term as scientific rather than rhetorical) for understanding language as action.
The Pentad includes five elements that make up Burke's (1945) dramatistic perspective. Each of these elements interacts with each other to frame a narrative in a certain way. The ratio used in the narrative determines its frame.
A. Act
B. Scene (The scene is the container for the action. It is the least flexible element, so it often determines the shape of the other elements within it.)
C. Agent
D. Agency (What facilitates the actor's ability to act.)
E. Purpose -- This can be a "human motive" rather than an individual motive. Therefore, purpose may be derived from a more general understanding of human motivations rather than the individual actor's intentions.
The Pentad includes five elements that make up Burke's (1945) dramatistic perspective. Each of these elements interacts with each other to frame a narrative in a certain way. The ratio used in the narrative determines its frame.
A. Act
B. Scene (The scene is the container for the action. It is the least flexible element, so it often determines the shape of the other elements within it.)
C. Agent
D. Agency (What facilitates the actor's ability to act.)
E. Purpose -- This can be a "human motive" rather than an individual motive. Therefore, purpose may be derived from a more general understanding of human motivations rather than the individual actor's intentions.
Burke (1937), Attitudes Toward History
1. Burke's (1937) definition of man [sic] is "the symbol-using, symbol-misusing, symbol-making, and symbol-made animal.
2. Burke notes that situations can be framed either as comedy or tragedy.
A. The comic frame is a way of framing a situation in terms of mistakes rather than crimes. This frame does not look for a scapegoat, but rather tries to correct and aid a fool.
B. The tragic frame frames a situation in terms of victims and oppressors. This frame points fingers and does not allow for a peaceful resolution. It defines a situation into war.
2. Burke notes that situations can be framed either as comedy or tragedy.
A. The comic frame is a way of framing a situation in terms of mistakes rather than crimes. This frame does not look for a scapegoat, but rather tries to correct and aid a fool.
B. The tragic frame frames a situation in terms of victims and oppressors. This frame points fingers and does not allow for a peaceful resolution. It defines a situation into war.
McKerrow (2011), "Foucault’s Relationship to Rhetoric"
1. Truth -- "Truth" is a map of rules.
The perception of truth is a result of statements organized in a particular way. Power relationships guide the rules for the "truthful" organization of statements. The organization of "truth" discourses preexist people, and their structure determines social positions.
2. Genealogy -- The map of rules is hidden in plain sight.
McKerrow (2011) argues that critical rhetoric offers a way of problematizing these rules. All forms of discourse exist within these rules, so no discourse is above criticism. For McKerrow (2011), Foucault's primary contribution to rhetoric is the idea of looking at the surface for ruptures in "common sense."
3. Historical subjects -- The rules do not bar human agency.
Foucault argues that subjects communicate within predetermined systems of rules. McKerrow (2011) suggests that this does not strip humans of their agency. Instead, the rules are malleable, and humans contribute to their construction and reconstruction.
The perception of truth is a result of statements organized in a particular way. Power relationships guide the rules for the "truthful" organization of statements. The organization of "truth" discourses preexist people, and their structure determines social positions.
2. Genealogy -- The map of rules is hidden in plain sight.
McKerrow (2011) argues that critical rhetoric offers a way of problematizing these rules. All forms of discourse exist within these rules, so no discourse is above criticism. For McKerrow (2011), Foucault's primary contribution to rhetoric is the idea of looking at the surface for ruptures in "common sense."
3. Historical subjects -- The rules do not bar human agency.
Foucault argues that subjects communicate within predetermined systems of rules. McKerrow (2011) suggests that this does not strip humans of their agency. Instead, the rules are malleable, and humans contribute to their construction and reconstruction.
Gunn (2006), "ShitText: Toward a New Coprophilic Style"
1. Hygiene is self-surveillance of the body.
Gunn (2006) uses Foucault's concept of biopower (scato-power) to argue that transnational consumerism controls every aspect of bodily function. He suggests that openly messy public speaking and shitting offer a too for hyperproduction that resists consumerist controls.
2. Production should be gifted rather than hoarded.
The consumerist frame that disciplines public speech/shit is about hoarding. Gunn (2006) argues that academic publishing pretends to give away our shit when we are really turning the receiver into our shit. He advocates a style of discourse that freely shits without attempting to hold in the socially undesirable.
Gunn (2006) uses Foucault's concept of biopower (scato-power) to argue that transnational consumerism controls every aspect of bodily function. He suggests that openly messy public speaking and shitting offer a too for hyperproduction that resists consumerist controls.
2. Production should be gifted rather than hoarded.
The consumerist frame that disciplines public speech/shit is about hoarding. Gunn (2006) argues that academic publishing pretends to give away our shit when we are really turning the receiver into our shit. He advocates a style of discourse that freely shits without attempting to hold in the socially undesirable.
Gronbeck (2006), "Rushing, Frentz, and the Matter of Psychological Rhetorical Criticism"
Writing in the 1980s and 1990s, Rushing and Frenz brought psychoanalysis to the range of rhetorical perspectives. They celebrated the idea of working across layers of human discourse. Gronbeck (2006) argues that psychological criticism contributes three areas to rhetorical studies:
1. Study of the submerged
We think of symbolic codes as a manifest representation of psychology below the surface. These codes can become embedded in the submerged. Codes are then used in public discourse as references to hidden psychological realms like anxiety, paranoia, joy, and other frames of consciousness.
2. Study of the overarching
Submerged states are individual and ritualized by the community. Psychoanalysis can therefore identify common psychological states by examining their emergence in public discourse.
3. Study of epistemological alternatives (transmodernism)
Rushing and Frentz (1995) propose a concept called "transmodernism." Modernism privileges duality which leads to hierarchies and oppression. Postmodernism completely fragments the self. Transmodernism uses the unconscious to unify human subjectivity, fragmenting the scientific problems of modernism and stabilizing postmodernism's slippery ego.
1. Study of the submerged
We think of symbolic codes as a manifest representation of psychology below the surface. These codes can become embedded in the submerged. Codes are then used in public discourse as references to hidden psychological realms like anxiety, paranoia, joy, and other frames of consciousness.
2. Study of the overarching
Submerged states are individual and ritualized by the community. Psychoanalysis can therefore identify common psychological states by examining their emergence in public discourse.
3. Study of epistemological alternatives (transmodernism)
Rushing and Frentz (1995) propose a concept called "transmodernism." Modernism privileges duality which leads to hierarchies and oppression. Postmodernism completely fragments the self. Transmodernism uses the unconscious to unify human subjectivity, fragmenting the scientific problems of modernism and stabilizing postmodernism's slippery ego.
Zarefsky (2004), "Presidential Rhetoric and the Power of Definition"
1. Rhetoric argues that language produces change, but this is not the same as causality or effects.
Texts in a vacuum will appear to produce no effect. Therefore, Zarefsky (2004) argues he that scholars must account for context. Furthermore, he urges not to make causal claims. Instead, Zarefsky (2004) cautions critics to be more precise in using language that indicates languages contribution to shaping culture and inviting certain readings.
2. Critics should acknowledge each of the dimensions of rhetorical transition in each analysis.
A. Interaction between message and audience -- largely empirical
B. Interaction between rhetor and text --issues like intention and motive
C. Interaction between the text and the critic -- this involves issues of context
3. Zarefsky (2004) emphasizes the role of definition in shaping culture. He argues that the process of defining involves things like selecting which data should be important, framing which aspects are worth attention, and bringing the situation to the public mind.
Texts in a vacuum will appear to produce no effect. Therefore, Zarefsky (2004) argues he that scholars must account for context. Furthermore, he urges not to make causal claims. Instead, Zarefsky (2004) cautions critics to be more precise in using language that indicates languages contribution to shaping culture and inviting certain readings.
2. Critics should acknowledge each of the dimensions of rhetorical transition in each analysis.
A. Interaction between message and audience -- largely empirical
B. Interaction between rhetor and text --issues like intention and motive
C. Interaction between the text and the critic -- this involves issues of context
3. Zarefsky (2004) emphasizes the role of definition in shaping culture. He argues that the process of defining involves things like selecting which data should be important, framing which aspects are worth attention, and bringing the situation to the public mind.
Palczewski (2003), "What is 'Good Criticism?'"
Palczewski (2003) argues that rhetorical criticism should focus on humans as "linguistic animals." Moreover, she believes that the study of rhetorical criticism should be joyful. She also argues that rhetorical criticism must take a stand on a text and make an argument about that text.
In decisions regarding methodological rigor, Palczewski (2003) argues for a focus on heuristics. She gives three criteria for this orientation.
1. Vocabulary should be presented in a way that clarifies. It should take care to "name things" with a responsibility to the never-ending conversation.
2. Vocabulary should look for nuanced differences and similarities between texts. Palczewski (2003) cautions critics not to make over-generalizations in order to paint broad theoretical pictures.
3. The analysis should be engaging and interesting. Palczewski (2003) argues that work should spark interest in the reader.
4. The analysis should be driven by text.
5. The essay should be written to the same standards to which we hold texts.
6. The selection of the text for study is political, and the critic should be sensitive to this. What are the conditions in which the text was chosen for analysis and what are the implications for choosing this text for study?
In decisions regarding methodological rigor, Palczewski (2003) argues for a focus on heuristics. She gives three criteria for this orientation.
1. Vocabulary should be presented in a way that clarifies. It should take care to "name things" with a responsibility to the never-ending conversation.
2. Vocabulary should look for nuanced differences and similarities between texts. Palczewski (2003) cautions critics not to make over-generalizations in order to paint broad theoretical pictures.
3. The analysis should be engaging and interesting. Palczewski (2003) argues that work should spark interest in the reader.
4. The analysis should be driven by text.
5. The essay should be written to the same standards to which we hold texts.
6. The selection of the text for study is political, and the critic should be sensitive to this. What are the conditions in which the text was chosen for analysis and what are the implications for choosing this text for study?
Campbell (2001), "Rhetorical Feminism"
Campbell (2001) traces the development of feminist rhetorical scholarship and offers a feminist perspective on the field's future direction.
1. Initial feminist rhetoric work focused on recovering historical women's texts.
2. Feminist rhetorical criticism shifted in the 1990s to include critical theory. This work still included studies of historical texts, but feminist rhetorical work also shifted include mass media and television studies.
3. Women's Studies in Communication played an important role in expanding feminist rhetoric. Though many of the major national journals were still resistant to this work, feminist rhetorical scholars were publishing more and more frequently in regional journals during the 1990s.
4. At the time of writing, Campbell (2001) describes a period of work in alternative theories. Here, she describes work that attempts to define a feminine rhetorical style that works in opposition to the combative style associated with traditional rhetoric. Campbell (2001) also believes that women's practices are an important area for future research.
1. Initial feminist rhetoric work focused on recovering historical women's texts.
2. Feminist rhetorical criticism shifted in the 1990s to include critical theory. This work still included studies of historical texts, but feminist rhetorical work also shifted include mass media and television studies.
3. Women's Studies in Communication played an important role in expanding feminist rhetoric. Though many of the major national journals were still resistant to this work, feminist rhetorical scholars were publishing more and more frequently in regional journals during the 1990s.
4. At the time of writing, Campbell (2001) describes a period of work in alternative theories. Here, she describes work that attempts to define a feminine rhetorical style that works in opposition to the combative style associated with traditional rhetoric. Campbell (2001) also believes that women's practices are an important area for future research.
Medhurst (2001), "The Contemporary Study of Public Address"
Medhurst (2001) outlines three moments in the state of public address and rhetorical criticism. He begins with Black's Rhetorical Criticism then moves chronologically through the present, ending with recommendations for future study.
1. Renewal
Medhurst (2001) calls the period following Black's book in 1965 through 1980 "renewal." (A) This time period is marked by disciplinary self-reflexivity, as critics work to identify systems of public discourse. (B) This time period is also marked by an increasingly open definition of public discourse including media forms. (C) Social movements of the period also led critics to study issues of oppression.
2. Recovery
The period of recovery, which Medhurst (2001) defines as 1980 through 2000, is marked by its dedication to "public affairs." Medhurst (2001) argues that this period recovers its focus on the broad field of politics. This time period also saw a shift from scholarly articles to book length research projects.
3. Reconfiguration
Medhurst's (2001) vision for the future of rhetoric is largely focused on training new scholars. He argues that scholarly training should prepare graduate students to take up a particular area of expertise. Medhurst (2001) largely emphasizes historical forms, and argues that large studies should be taken up involving teams of researchers. Scholars should remember that we are producers, not just critics, of social texts.
1. Renewal
Medhurst (2001) calls the period following Black's book in 1965 through 1980 "renewal." (A) This time period is marked by disciplinary self-reflexivity, as critics work to identify systems of public discourse. (B) This time period is also marked by an increasingly open definition of public discourse including media forms. (C) Social movements of the period also led critics to study issues of oppression.
2. Recovery
The period of recovery, which Medhurst (2001) defines as 1980 through 2000, is marked by its dedication to "public affairs." Medhurst (2001) argues that this period recovers its focus on the broad field of politics. This time period also saw a shift from scholarly articles to book length research projects.
3. Reconfiguration
Medhurst's (2001) vision for the future of rhetoric is largely focused on training new scholars. He argues that scholarly training should prepare graduate students to take up a particular area of expertise. Medhurst (2001) largely emphasizes historical forms, and argues that large studies should be taken up involving teams of researchers. Scholars should remember that we are producers, not just critics, of social texts.
Sunday, August 11, 2013
Dow (1995), "Feminism, Difference(s), and Rhetorical Studies"
Feminist rhetoric uses feminist theory to celebrate women's contributions to public discourses and to critique the ways these contributions are marginalized. Dow (1995) is concerned with the way theories of difference(s) have been used in discussions of feminist rhetoric.
1. Difference has been used to essentialize women's rhetoric.
Dow (1995) argues that women face a similar set of circumstances that result in a similar rhetorical style. This is importantly different from the idea that women's rhetorical style comes from biological, essential differences between men and women. The latter characterization has appeared in discussions of feminist rhetoric.
2. We have neglected to discuss differences between women.
Dow (1995) criticizes theories of difference(s) for failing to acknowledge differences between women. She notes that feminist rhetorical theory has largely conceptualized "woman" as white, middle-class, and heterosexual. She argues that feminist rhetorical theory should work to fix this problem.
2. We have neglected to discuss differences between women.
Dow (1995) criticizes theories of difference(s) for failing to acknowledge differences between women. She notes that feminist rhetorical theory has largely conceptualized "woman" as white, middle-class, and heterosexual. She argues that feminist rhetorical theory should work to fix this problem.
McKerrow (1989), "Critical Rhetoric: Theory and Praxis"
McKerrow's (1989) concept of critical rhetoric is an intervention into Platonic rhetoric's universal notions of logic. McKerrow (1989) proposes a critical rhetoric that accounts for context and contingency and that "seeks to unmask or demystify the discourse of power" (p. 91). Critical rhetoric works against something, and the process of the critique is therefore a practice rather than a method. Critical rhetoric includes the "critique of domination" and the "critique of freedom."
A. A critique of domination aims to demystify the conditions of domination. It looks for the ways ideology works to reproduce domination.
B. A critique of freedom looks at the ways power is reasserted in culture. It looks for new ways power might express itself.
The practice of critical rhetoric is comprised of eight rules:
1. It is a practice, not a method.
2. The discourse of power is material.
3. Rhetoric is doxastic rather than epistemological.
4. Naming is the central act in nominalist rhetoric.
5. Influence is not causality.
6. Absence is as important as presence.
7. Fragments are potentially polysemic.
8. Criticism is a performance.
Blair & Cooper (1987), "The Humanist Turn in Foucault’s Rhetoric of Inquiry"
Blair and Cooper (1987) address Fisher's critique of Foucault. Fisher reads Foucault's positions on the structures of discourse as anti-humanist, and therefore argues that Foucault's theories are inherently flawed. Blair and Cooper (1987) defend Foucault, noting that Foucault's critiques of humanism were aimed at producing a more humanist result. They note that Foucault's work imagines human agency in discourse and attempts to create an environment with even more human rhetorical freedom.
1. Foucault is an important contributor to contemporary rhetoric.
Blair and Cooper (1987) point out that contemporary rhetoric sees humans as entrenched in discourses as opposed to old perspectives which saw rhetoric simply as a tool of persuasion. Foucault imagined human subjects to be active within their discursive environment. Foucault is therefore an important contributor to contemporary rhetoric.
2. Foucault's work reframes rhetoric in a manner consistent with humanist goals.
Blair and Cooper (1987) argue that rhetorical criticism must critique social alternatives that are offered in rhetoric. They see Foucault's methodological arguments as driving rhetorical theory toward a more proactive position.
1. Foucault is an important contributor to contemporary rhetoric.
Blair and Cooper (1987) point out that contemporary rhetoric sees humans as entrenched in discourses as opposed to old perspectives which saw rhetoric simply as a tool of persuasion. Foucault imagined human subjects to be active within their discursive environment. Foucault is therefore an important contributor to contemporary rhetoric.
2. Foucault's work reframes rhetoric in a manner consistent with humanist goals.
Blair and Cooper (1987) argue that rhetorical criticism must critique social alternatives that are offered in rhetoric. They see Foucault's methodological arguments as driving rhetorical theory toward a more proactive position.
Blair (1987), "The Statement: Foundation of Foucault’s Historical Criticism"
1. We can trace unities in historical discourse. This lets us see moments of change. Together these moments make up a map of transformation and stability.
2. For Foucault, statements are sets of signifiers that are considered to represent knowledge. Statements facilitate relationships between individuals and groups, and we use them to perform the self. These functions only work through the relationships between statements.
3. When statements are uttered, they tell us something about the epistemological assumptions in a culture. There are three parts to studying statements:
A. Rarity -- Look at what is not being said and what is being silenced as well.
B. Exteriority -- Don't look for the hidden meaning. Look for the context that allows the statement to exist.
C. Accumulation -- Look for how statements come in and out of the culture.
4. Rhetorical studies includes history, politics, and epistemology. Blair (1987) argues that Foucault's concept of the statement allows us to integrate all of these elements.
2. For Foucault, statements are sets of signifiers that are considered to represent knowledge. Statements facilitate relationships between individuals and groups, and we use them to perform the self. These functions only work through the relationships between statements.
3. When statements are uttered, they tell us something about the epistemological assumptions in a culture. There are three parts to studying statements:
A. Rarity -- Look at what is not being said and what is being silenced as well.
B. Exteriority -- Don't look for the hidden meaning. Look for the context that allows the statement to exist.
C. Accumulation -- Look for how statements come in and out of the culture.
4. Rhetorical studies includes history, politics, and epistemology. Blair (1987) argues that Foucault's concept of the statement allows us to integrate all of these elements.
Saturday, August 10, 2013
Fisher (1984), "Narration as Human Communication Paradigm"
1. Humans are story-telling animals.
Fisher (1984) argues that humans are essentially story-telling animals, or homo narrans. This means that we make decisions based on narratives. Narratives circulate around our environment, and we use these to make our decisions. Fisher (1984) notes that we make decisions based on a logic of good reasons. This may include more traditionally rational reasoning, though Fisher (1984) notes that these issues may only be partially understood because they rely on emotions.
2. Narratives can persuade when they have fidelity and coherence.
Narratives have fidelity when they match our understanding of reality. Narratives have coherence when they are internally logical.
Fisher (1984) argues that humans are essentially story-telling animals, or homo narrans. This means that we make decisions based on narratives. Narratives circulate around our environment, and we use these to make our decisions. Fisher (1984) notes that we make decisions based on a logic of good reasons. This may include more traditionally rational reasoning, though Fisher (1984) notes that these issues may only be partially understood because they rely on emotions.
2. Narratives can persuade when they have fidelity and coherence.
Narratives have fidelity when they match our understanding of reality. Narratives have coherence when they are internally logical.
3. The logic of good reasons unites the whole brain.
The narrative paradigm was Fisher's (1984) attempt at resolving dualisms like fact/value and reason/emotion. He argued that narrative logic unites the whole brain, and it allows rhetoricians to understand the ways logic and myth work together.
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