Media frames as dependent variables
Scheufele (1999) notes that many studies claim the routines of journalists shape the way news is framed. Pressures on journalists and media organizations have also been blamed for limiting media frames.
Media frames as independent variables
Scheufele (1999) argues that framing works best as a media effects theory when it is applied as the independent variable. Studies that apply framing as an independent variable focus on the persuasive consequences of media framing and the way that limited frames can impact public opinion. Following Entman, Scheufele (1999) identifies five areas in which framing can impact public opinion of issues. These include judgment of importance, judgments about agency, identification with victims, choice of labels, and generalization. Media framing can also be used as an independent variable that effects individual media consumers' framing of incidents.
Scheufele (1999) proposes a model that maps framing as a process. The process involves four steps.
1. Frame building includes the development of the frame by journalists and new organizations.
2. Frame setting centralizes the audience reception and processing of the media frame.
3. Individual Effects of Framing involves the audience use of frames in their everyday interactions and understandings of society.
4. "Journalists as Audiences" focuses on journalists development of media frames based on their experiences in the culture.
Tuesday, August 6, 2013
Herman (1996), "The Propaganda Model Revisited"
1. The propaganda model is based on media's situation within an economic market.
Herman (1996) argues that media's primary goal is to sustain profitability. Media makers know that government and advertising institutions are a threat to profitability, and so the media must appease these powerful groups. Herman (1996) notes that this process filters the media, as issues like media ownership, advertising, and ideology work to keep certain messages off the media.
Mainstream media allow debates over issues only within a narrow parameter which is determined by market value.
2. Herman (1996) also uses this essay to argue that the propaganda model has been unfairly targeted for critique. He believes that the model remains significant and important, citing then current issues of NAFTA and the creation of the internet as important applications of the model.
Morley (1996), "Postmodernism: The Rough Guide"
Morley (1996) attempts to settle debates over what post-modernism is and what it might mean for critical analysis. He is primarily interested in problematizing major claims about post-modernism.
1. Our current focus on post-modernism may be about anxiety. If modernism has been characterized largely by imperialism, then postmodernism may signal a shift away from Western domination. Furthermore, there are economic aspects to this uneasiness. Changes in government and industrial structure signal a move away from welfare politics and into decentralization and deregulation.
2. Postmodernism is often discussed in terms that make it seem more like anti-modernism. In some instances, claims of postmodernism negate themselves by being too fervently against modernism and rationality. For example, Morley (1996) mocks the idea of definitively saying we can't know anything for certain. When such a statement is made definitively, it undoes itself.
3. Media is involved in the conception of the postmodern because our culture is increasingly saturated with media. Morley (1996) notes that many of the fears about postmodern media seem exaggerated. Morley (1996) is particularly critical of the idea that our world is made up only of spectacles with no meaning behind them and the argument that we accept information so passively as to mitigate its possible propaganda effects.
Morley (1996) does note a reversal in some forms of media, though. He is particularly (though briefly) interested in the way media has tended to dictate real events rather than simply communicating them. Reagan's bombing of Libya, for example, was scheduled around television news schedules rather than military timing.
1. Our current focus on post-modernism may be about anxiety. If modernism has been characterized largely by imperialism, then postmodernism may signal a shift away from Western domination. Furthermore, there are economic aspects to this uneasiness. Changes in government and industrial structure signal a move away from welfare politics and into decentralization and deregulation.
2. Postmodernism is often discussed in terms that make it seem more like anti-modernism. In some instances, claims of postmodernism negate themselves by being too fervently against modernism and rationality. For example, Morley (1996) mocks the idea of definitively saying we can't know anything for certain. When such a statement is made definitively, it undoes itself.
3. Media is involved in the conception of the postmodern because our culture is increasingly saturated with media. Morley (1996) notes that many of the fears about postmodern media seem exaggerated. Morley (1996) is particularly critical of the idea that our world is made up only of spectacles with no meaning behind them and the argument that we accept information so passively as to mitigate its possible propaganda effects.
Morley (1996) does note a reversal in some forms of media, though. He is particularly (though briefly) interested in the way media has tended to dictate real events rather than simply communicating them. Reagan's bombing of Libya, for example, was scheduled around television news schedules rather than military timing.
Jenkins (1988), "Fan Writing as Textual Poaching"
Jenkins (1988) uses this essay to outline his concept of textual "poachers." Leaning on de Certeau's concept of "making do," Jenkins (1988) argues that Star Trek fans are neither dupes nor social rejects. Instead, he examines fan fiction written by female fans of the series to argue that these women take pieces of the text and repurpose them to suit their needs.
1. Jenkins (1988) argues that women are more likely to renegotiate stories through fan fiction authorship because the stories are male-centric. These women see themselves as fixing problems with the story that oppress the female characters they enjoy. Furthermore, Jenkins (1988) found that women used Star Trek's female characters to craft imagery of balancing work life and social life.
2. Jenkins (1988) is also concerned with what he calls the "moral economy" of fan fiction. He is clear that fan fiction authors feel ownership and loyalty toward the original text. As such, not every reworking of the story is accepted by other fan fiction authors. It is important to fan fiction authors that stories remain consistent with the industry-produced text. Rather than attempting to harm the text, fans are protective of the text's integrity.
1. Jenkins (1988) argues that women are more likely to renegotiate stories through fan fiction authorship because the stories are male-centric. These women see themselves as fixing problems with the story that oppress the female characters they enjoy. Furthermore, Jenkins (1988) found that women used Star Trek's female characters to craft imagery of balancing work life and social life.
2. Jenkins (1988) is also concerned with what he calls the "moral economy" of fan fiction. He is clear that fan fiction authors feel ownership and loyalty toward the original text. As such, not every reworking of the story is accepted by other fan fiction authors. It is important to fan fiction authors that stories remain consistent with the industry-produced text. Rather than attempting to harm the text, fans are protective of the text's integrity.
Newcomb (1984), "On the Dialogic Aspects of Mass Communication"
In this essay, Newcomb (1984) explores the failure of cultural studies to fully account for media's impact on social relations. Specifically, he addresses the use of hegemony to explain the ways audiences and texts interact. Newcomb (1984) notes that hegemony is a useful concept in its flexibility. However, the flexibility of the term also means that hegemony stretches unpredictably. To discussions of media hegemony, Newcomb (1984) proposes a theory of dialogic media.
1. Using Volosinov's theory of language as practice, Newcomb (1984) argues that texts are constantly shifting.
Newcomb (1984) argues that the shifting nature of language is a result of its real meaning as a form of practice. Language is embedded with historical and cultural meanings that only take hold when put into the practice of social interaction. Newcomb (1984) uses this insight to critique approaches to media studies. For Newcomb (1984), the shifting nature of language makes it unfit for study through static theories.
2. Bakhtin's dialogic communication model further allows Newcomb (1984) to situate media's shifting language as part of a dialogue.
Each stage of media production and consumption is a negotiation. Newcomb (1984) argues that television production is a constant site of negotiation, as writers, producers, distributors, censors, and others struggle over narratives. This negotiation continues as the audience negotiates texts and the meanings in texts. Newcomb (1984) notes that this occurs not only at the level of individual television episodes and series, but also in the viewers' consumption of other media and nonmedia communication.
3. Newcomb (1984) uses these insights to propose two major forms of media studies -- diagonal strips and ethnographic methods.
First, Newcomb (1984) argues that media should be studied in "diagonal strips." Newcomb (1984) expands Williams' (1976) concept of television flow, arguing that as viewers change channels, alternate between recorded and live television, and skip commercials they are effectively renegotiating the text itself. The media scholar should therefore focus on real strips of television in the order they are consumed by viewers.
Second, Newcomb (1984) argues that media scholars should employ ethnographic models. This allows researchers to observe the ways that viewers make sense of television through conversation with one another.
1. Using Volosinov's theory of language as practice, Newcomb (1984) argues that texts are constantly shifting.
Newcomb (1984) argues that the shifting nature of language is a result of its real meaning as a form of practice. Language is embedded with historical and cultural meanings that only take hold when put into the practice of social interaction. Newcomb (1984) uses this insight to critique approaches to media studies. For Newcomb (1984), the shifting nature of language makes it unfit for study through static theories.
2. Bakhtin's dialogic communication model further allows Newcomb (1984) to situate media's shifting language as part of a dialogue.
Each stage of media production and consumption is a negotiation. Newcomb (1984) argues that television production is a constant site of negotiation, as writers, producers, distributors, censors, and others struggle over narratives. This negotiation continues as the audience negotiates texts and the meanings in texts. Newcomb (1984) notes that this occurs not only at the level of individual television episodes and series, but also in the viewers' consumption of other media and nonmedia communication.
3. Newcomb (1984) uses these insights to propose two major forms of media studies -- diagonal strips and ethnographic methods.
First, Newcomb (1984) argues that media should be studied in "diagonal strips." Newcomb (1984) expands Williams' (1976) concept of television flow, arguing that as viewers change channels, alternate between recorded and live television, and skip commercials they are effectively renegotiating the text itself. The media scholar should therefore focus on real strips of television in the order they are consumed by viewers.
Second, Newcomb (1984) argues that media scholars should employ ethnographic models. This allows researchers to observe the ways that viewers make sense of television through conversation with one another.
Grossberg (1984), "Strategies of Marxist Cultural Interpretation"
Grossberg (1984) aims to clarify debates about where Marxist cultural interpretation is and should be. He argues that the purpose of Marxist interpretation should be to describe and intervene into texts' function in culture and society. Specifically, Marxist analysts should look at how texts function in the real, concrete lives of human beings to recreate power relations.
Under this umbrella, Grossberg (1984) sees two broad questions:
1. The politics of textuality -- By "politics of textuality," Grossberg (1984) describes the changing meaning of "text" for scholars from a variety of perspectives. Debates about texts depend on where the critic sees the text originating in the cycle of communication as well as how the critic views the roles of encoding and decoding.
2. The problematic of cultural studies -- Grossberg (1984) uses "the problematic of cultural studies" to describe the relationship between society and culture. The politics of texts are defined in part by where society ends and culture begins, as well as how the two interact with one another. Grossberg (1984) notes that lived experience may also be a part of this equation for some critics.
Hall (1980), "Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse"
Hall (1980) argued that media discourse should be understood as a series of moments including production, distribution, and reproduction. Each of these moments happens independently of the others, so that no single moment can control the others.
1. Production, Distribution, and Reproduction
The production moment represents circulation in Hall's (1980) model. At this point, television is coded discourse rooted in material instruments and ideological social relations.
The moment of distribution or consumption involves the audience translating the discourse into social understanding.
In Hall's (1980) reproduction moment, the social understanding produced through the reading of the discourse is acted out, naturalized, and internalized.
This cycle repeats, so that audiences are involved in a feedback loop with producers.
2. Encoding
In the encoding process, Hall (1980) argues, television producers create a narrative that fits within the ideological social relations present in the society. Narrative rules and established form must be accounted for so that the message can be communicated to others.
Hall (1980) argued that encoding was always at work, but he argues that understanding the process of encoding is valuable to understanding the process of media.
3. Decoding
The audiences uses personal knowledge of cultural codes to understand the message constructed in the production moment. Hall (1980) argues that there may be asymmetry in the encoding and decoding processes, due to things like power asymmetry between the encoder and the decoder and disagreement between the code and the referent.
4. "Selective Perception" Theory -- or "viewer positions"
Since all visual codes contain various connotations, there is always room for multiple readings. Hall's (1980) essay is perhaps most famous for his introduction of three "viewer positions."
From the dominant-hegemonic position, viewers accept the message within the intended ideological frame.
The negotiated position involves acceptance of some dominant messages and rejection of others. Viewers in this position often find ways of justifying some angles while arguing with others.
Finally, the oppositional position involves the viewer decoding from outside of hegemony. In this position, the viewer contests the ideological frame necessary for decoding the message from the dominant perspective.
1. Production, Distribution, and Reproduction
The production moment represents circulation in Hall's (1980) model. At this point, television is coded discourse rooted in material instruments and ideological social relations.
The moment of distribution or consumption involves the audience translating the discourse into social understanding.
In Hall's (1980) reproduction moment, the social understanding produced through the reading of the discourse is acted out, naturalized, and internalized.
This cycle repeats, so that audiences are involved in a feedback loop with producers.
2. Encoding
In the encoding process, Hall (1980) argues, television producers create a narrative that fits within the ideological social relations present in the society. Narrative rules and established form must be accounted for so that the message can be communicated to others.
Hall (1980) argued that encoding was always at work, but he argues that understanding the process of encoding is valuable to understanding the process of media.
3. Decoding
The audiences uses personal knowledge of cultural codes to understand the message constructed in the production moment. Hall (1980) argues that there may be asymmetry in the encoding and decoding processes, due to things like power asymmetry between the encoder and the decoder and disagreement between the code and the referent.
4. "Selective Perception" Theory -- or "viewer positions"
Since all visual codes contain various connotations, there is always room for multiple readings. Hall's (1980) essay is perhaps most famous for his introduction of three "viewer positions."
From the dominant-hegemonic position, viewers accept the message within the intended ideological frame.
The negotiated position involves acceptance of some dominant messages and rejection of others. Viewers in this position often find ways of justifying some angles while arguing with others.
Finally, the oppositional position involves the viewer decoding from outside of hegemony. In this position, the viewer contests the ideological frame necessary for decoding the message from the dominant perspective.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)