1. Burke's (1937) definition of man [sic] is "the symbol-using, symbol-misusing, symbol-making, and symbol-made animal.
2. Burke notes that situations can be framed either as comedy or tragedy.
A. The comic frame is a way of framing a situation in terms of mistakes rather than crimes. This frame does not look for a scapegoat, but rather tries to correct and aid a fool.
B. The tragic frame frames a situation in terms of victims and oppressors. This frame points fingers and does not allow for a peaceful resolution. It defines a situation into war.
Monday, August 12, 2013
McKerrow (2011), "Foucault’s Relationship to Rhetoric"
1. Truth -- "Truth" is a map of rules.
The perception of truth is a result of statements organized in a particular way. Power relationships guide the rules for the "truthful" organization of statements. The organization of "truth" discourses preexist people, and their structure determines social positions.
2. Genealogy -- The map of rules is hidden in plain sight.
McKerrow (2011) argues that critical rhetoric offers a way of problematizing these rules. All forms of discourse exist within these rules, so no discourse is above criticism. For McKerrow (2011), Foucault's primary contribution to rhetoric is the idea of looking at the surface for ruptures in "common sense."
3. Historical subjects -- The rules do not bar human agency.
Foucault argues that subjects communicate within predetermined systems of rules. McKerrow (2011) suggests that this does not strip humans of their agency. Instead, the rules are malleable, and humans contribute to their construction and reconstruction.
The perception of truth is a result of statements organized in a particular way. Power relationships guide the rules for the "truthful" organization of statements. The organization of "truth" discourses preexist people, and their structure determines social positions.
2. Genealogy -- The map of rules is hidden in plain sight.
McKerrow (2011) argues that critical rhetoric offers a way of problematizing these rules. All forms of discourse exist within these rules, so no discourse is above criticism. For McKerrow (2011), Foucault's primary contribution to rhetoric is the idea of looking at the surface for ruptures in "common sense."
3. Historical subjects -- The rules do not bar human agency.
Foucault argues that subjects communicate within predetermined systems of rules. McKerrow (2011) suggests that this does not strip humans of their agency. Instead, the rules are malleable, and humans contribute to their construction and reconstruction.
Gunn (2006), "ShitText: Toward a New Coprophilic Style"
1. Hygiene is self-surveillance of the body.
Gunn (2006) uses Foucault's concept of biopower (scato-power) to argue that transnational consumerism controls every aspect of bodily function. He suggests that openly messy public speaking and shitting offer a too for hyperproduction that resists consumerist controls.
2. Production should be gifted rather than hoarded.
The consumerist frame that disciplines public speech/shit is about hoarding. Gunn (2006) argues that academic publishing pretends to give away our shit when we are really turning the receiver into our shit. He advocates a style of discourse that freely shits without attempting to hold in the socially undesirable.
Gunn (2006) uses Foucault's concept of biopower (scato-power) to argue that transnational consumerism controls every aspect of bodily function. He suggests that openly messy public speaking and shitting offer a too for hyperproduction that resists consumerist controls.
2. Production should be gifted rather than hoarded.
The consumerist frame that disciplines public speech/shit is about hoarding. Gunn (2006) argues that academic publishing pretends to give away our shit when we are really turning the receiver into our shit. He advocates a style of discourse that freely shits without attempting to hold in the socially undesirable.
Gronbeck (2006), "Rushing, Frentz, and the Matter of Psychological Rhetorical Criticism"
Writing in the 1980s and 1990s, Rushing and Frenz brought psychoanalysis to the range of rhetorical perspectives. They celebrated the idea of working across layers of human discourse. Gronbeck (2006) argues that psychological criticism contributes three areas to rhetorical studies:
1. Study of the submerged
We think of symbolic codes as a manifest representation of psychology below the surface. These codes can become embedded in the submerged. Codes are then used in public discourse as references to hidden psychological realms like anxiety, paranoia, joy, and other frames of consciousness.
2. Study of the overarching
Submerged states are individual and ritualized by the community. Psychoanalysis can therefore identify common psychological states by examining their emergence in public discourse.
3. Study of epistemological alternatives (transmodernism)
Rushing and Frentz (1995) propose a concept called "transmodernism." Modernism privileges duality which leads to hierarchies and oppression. Postmodernism completely fragments the self. Transmodernism uses the unconscious to unify human subjectivity, fragmenting the scientific problems of modernism and stabilizing postmodernism's slippery ego.
1. Study of the submerged
We think of symbolic codes as a manifest representation of psychology below the surface. These codes can become embedded in the submerged. Codes are then used in public discourse as references to hidden psychological realms like anxiety, paranoia, joy, and other frames of consciousness.
2. Study of the overarching
Submerged states are individual and ritualized by the community. Psychoanalysis can therefore identify common psychological states by examining their emergence in public discourse.
3. Study of epistemological alternatives (transmodernism)
Rushing and Frentz (1995) propose a concept called "transmodernism." Modernism privileges duality which leads to hierarchies and oppression. Postmodernism completely fragments the self. Transmodernism uses the unconscious to unify human subjectivity, fragmenting the scientific problems of modernism and stabilizing postmodernism's slippery ego.
Zarefsky (2004), "Presidential Rhetoric and the Power of Definition"
1. Rhetoric argues that language produces change, but this is not the same as causality or effects.
Texts in a vacuum will appear to produce no effect. Therefore, Zarefsky (2004) argues he that scholars must account for context. Furthermore, he urges not to make causal claims. Instead, Zarefsky (2004) cautions critics to be more precise in using language that indicates languages contribution to shaping culture and inviting certain readings.
2. Critics should acknowledge each of the dimensions of rhetorical transition in each analysis.
A. Interaction between message and audience -- largely empirical
B. Interaction between rhetor and text --issues like intention and motive
C. Interaction between the text and the critic -- this involves issues of context
3. Zarefsky (2004) emphasizes the role of definition in shaping culture. He argues that the process of defining involves things like selecting which data should be important, framing which aspects are worth attention, and bringing the situation to the public mind.
Texts in a vacuum will appear to produce no effect. Therefore, Zarefsky (2004) argues he that scholars must account for context. Furthermore, he urges not to make causal claims. Instead, Zarefsky (2004) cautions critics to be more precise in using language that indicates languages contribution to shaping culture and inviting certain readings.
2. Critics should acknowledge each of the dimensions of rhetorical transition in each analysis.
A. Interaction between message and audience -- largely empirical
B. Interaction between rhetor and text --issues like intention and motive
C. Interaction between the text and the critic -- this involves issues of context
3. Zarefsky (2004) emphasizes the role of definition in shaping culture. He argues that the process of defining involves things like selecting which data should be important, framing which aspects are worth attention, and bringing the situation to the public mind.
Palczewski (2003), "What is 'Good Criticism?'"
Palczewski (2003) argues that rhetorical criticism should focus on humans as "linguistic animals." Moreover, she believes that the study of rhetorical criticism should be joyful. She also argues that rhetorical criticism must take a stand on a text and make an argument about that text.
In decisions regarding methodological rigor, Palczewski (2003) argues for a focus on heuristics. She gives three criteria for this orientation.
1. Vocabulary should be presented in a way that clarifies. It should take care to "name things" with a responsibility to the never-ending conversation.
2. Vocabulary should look for nuanced differences and similarities between texts. Palczewski (2003) cautions critics not to make over-generalizations in order to paint broad theoretical pictures.
3. The analysis should be engaging and interesting. Palczewski (2003) argues that work should spark interest in the reader.
4. The analysis should be driven by text.
5. The essay should be written to the same standards to which we hold texts.
6. The selection of the text for study is political, and the critic should be sensitive to this. What are the conditions in which the text was chosen for analysis and what are the implications for choosing this text for study?
In decisions regarding methodological rigor, Palczewski (2003) argues for a focus on heuristics. She gives three criteria for this orientation.
1. Vocabulary should be presented in a way that clarifies. It should take care to "name things" with a responsibility to the never-ending conversation.
2. Vocabulary should look for nuanced differences and similarities between texts. Palczewski (2003) cautions critics not to make over-generalizations in order to paint broad theoretical pictures.
3. The analysis should be engaging and interesting. Palczewski (2003) argues that work should spark interest in the reader.
4. The analysis should be driven by text.
5. The essay should be written to the same standards to which we hold texts.
6. The selection of the text for study is political, and the critic should be sensitive to this. What are the conditions in which the text was chosen for analysis and what are the implications for choosing this text for study?
Campbell (2001), "Rhetorical Feminism"
Campbell (2001) traces the development of feminist rhetorical scholarship and offers a feminist perspective on the field's future direction.
1. Initial feminist rhetoric work focused on recovering historical women's texts.
2. Feminist rhetorical criticism shifted in the 1990s to include critical theory. This work still included studies of historical texts, but feminist rhetorical work also shifted include mass media and television studies.
3. Women's Studies in Communication played an important role in expanding feminist rhetoric. Though many of the major national journals were still resistant to this work, feminist rhetorical scholars were publishing more and more frequently in regional journals during the 1990s.
4. At the time of writing, Campbell (2001) describes a period of work in alternative theories. Here, she describes work that attempts to define a feminine rhetorical style that works in opposition to the combative style associated with traditional rhetoric. Campbell (2001) also believes that women's practices are an important area for future research.
1. Initial feminist rhetoric work focused on recovering historical women's texts.
2. Feminist rhetorical criticism shifted in the 1990s to include critical theory. This work still included studies of historical texts, but feminist rhetorical work also shifted include mass media and television studies.
3. Women's Studies in Communication played an important role in expanding feminist rhetoric. Though many of the major national journals were still resistant to this work, feminist rhetorical scholars were publishing more and more frequently in regional journals during the 1990s.
4. At the time of writing, Campbell (2001) describes a period of work in alternative theories. Here, she describes work that attempts to define a feminine rhetorical style that works in opposition to the combative style associated with traditional rhetoric. Campbell (2001) also believes that women's practices are an important area for future research.
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